Adult female flies were 4–4.5 d postemergent at time of inoculation. Males and females were used in the NY99 trial; only females were used in the CO2008 trial. Special thanks go to Clinton Carlson of Activation by Design for preparation of figures and to Heather Furlong at the USDA for providing stable flies and technical advice on their rearing. The Egyptian plover is a striking and unmistakable species. Holloran G. D. Pouch lice (Piagetiella peralis Leidy) (Menoponidae) collected from WNV-infected American white pelicans tested negative for WNV (Johnson et al. . The remaining nine flies did not complete contact using either legs or mouthparts and did not transfer viable WNV to recipient swabs. These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. T. E. However, the proportion of WNV-positive bodies was not significantly different between the NY99 and CO2008 strains (P = 0.49) (Table 1), nor were the proportions of positive legs, mouthparts, or swabs significantly different (P = 0.58, 0.07, and 0.26, respectively) (Table 1). Nasci J. C. VI. If the fly began feeding, it was allowed to do so for 20–40 s and was then dislodged by slowly pulling the saturated tip back within the straw. Issel In some cases, a fly, with no apparent interest in feeding, inadvertently walked over the tip and/or was contacted by the swab on dorsal portions of the body. Aspen A. R. (1973) and Butler et al. Crans Wanink, J. H. & K. P. C. Goudswaard, 1994. Lindsey [6], The image by Warren Photographic showing an Egyptian plover apparently inside the mouth of a Nile crocodile is stated on its website to be "[a] digital reconstruction of [the] popular myth attributed to Herodotus, 5th Century BC. This is a preview of subscription content. It is important to note that flies often groomed themselves after contact with the infectious swab, allowing them to inadvertently transfer virus over most of their body surfaces. M. J. It breeds on sandbars in very large rivers. The extent of contact between the fly and the swab was noted, as described in the previous paragraph. We can only rely on circumstantial evidence (i.e., infected legs, mouthparts, and to a lesser extent, bodies) to infer specific routes of transmission. Savage Mumcuoglu This African bird's nest is a massive, roofed structure set up in the fork of a tree near water. There are also no confounding effects of individual variation in disease susceptibility between donor or recipient animals. Galun In these situations, closer scrutiny must be given to the role of these, and potentially other, nonculicid flies to direct control measures against the amplification of WNV among birds and the subsequent infection of livestock and humans. Stein During their migration, they fly high above the Himalayas to avoid dangerous mountain predators such as eagles. Bunning Academic Press, London, 552 pp. L. D. 2010). K. 2005, Godsey et al. L. R. S. We chose to challenge flies to ≈107 PFU/ml because this level has been observed in at least four orders of birds (i.e., Passeriformes, Falconiformes, Charadriiformes, and Strigiformes) during peak viremia (Komar et al. The Egyptian plover is a localised resident in tropical sub-Saharan Africa. For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription. Stable flies are known to feed up to twice per day during warm weather (Krishnananthasivam 1972) and, when disturbed, are likely to return to the same host (Weber et al. This bird digs a horizontal cavity into the sand on a river embankment. The CO2008 strain underwent one passage in vero cells before this study. Fry, C. H., S. Keith & E. K. Urban, 1988. (2002). E. T. W. Hunter Ixodes ricinus L., a hard tick, did not transmit WNV 30 d postinfection (Lawrie et al. P. (2007) provides two possible explanations for this phenomenon: virus entering host cells during the ≈1 h between inoculation and freezing, and virus becoming entrapped in tissues as a result of incomplete maceration and homogenization. This finding supports the possibility that virus resided externally on mouthparts, on the inner surfaces of mouthparts, or both. Bailey Of 132 recipient swabs tested for viable WNV, eight (6.0%) were positive. Scherr This keeps predators out. Of course! Further work is necessary to refine the length of time that stable flies can mechanically transmit viable WNV. James

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